Working of Institutions — Class 9 Civics Notes

A democracy doesn't function just on good intentions — it needs institutions (organized structures with rules and procedures) to:

1. Make major decisions that affect the entire country
2. Ensure decisions are implemented properly
3. Resolve disputes between citizens and the state
4. Prevent any single person or group from misusing power

Three key decisions a modern government must make:

• Policy decisions (who should decide national policies?)
• Implementation decisions (who should put those policies into practice?)
• Legal decisions (who should resolve disputes?)

1. The Legislature (Parliament)

• India's Parliament = Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha + President
• Makes laws for the country
• Controls the budget (can approve or reject government spending)
• Debates national issues and holds the executive accountable
• Members are elected by citizens (Lok Sabha) or elected by state assemblies (Rajya Sabha)

2. The Executive The executive actually implements laws and runs the government. It has two levels:

• Political Executive: Prime Minister + Council of Ministers — elected politicians who run government departments and make policy decisions. They are accountable to Parliament.
• Permanent Executive: The Civil Services (IAS, IPS officers) — career bureaucrats who implement policies and continue across governments.

3. The Judiciary

• Supreme Court at the apex, High Courts in each state, and District/Trial Courts at the lowest level
• Interprets the Constitution
• Settles disputes between citizens, states, and the central government
• Can strike down laws that violate the Constitution (Judicial Review)

The key principle is that no single institution should have unlimited power:

• Parliament can pass a law → President can send it back for reconsideration → Courts can strike it down if unconstitutional
• Prime Minister appoints ministers → Parliament can remove them through a vote of no confidence
• Judges are appointed by a complex process involving both the government and senior judges (Collegium system) to ensure independence

This system of mutual oversight is called Checks and Balances.

The NCERT Class 9 textbook uses the Mandal Commission OBC reservation issue as a case study:

1. Mandal Commission report (1980) recommended 27% reservations for OBCs
2. Report ignored for years until PM VP Singh implemented it in 1990
3. Led to massive protests — matter went to the Supreme Court
4. Supreme Court upheld reservations with a 50% total cap (Indra Sawhney case, 1992)
5. Shows how Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary all played roles in one decision